Athenian Artistic Performances Were They a Form of Propaganda Essay

The â€Å"glory that was Greece† reached its height in 5th century BCE in Athens, under the leadership of Pericles. He opened Athenian democracy to the ordinary citizen, was responsible for the construction of magnificent temples and statues on the Acropolis and he, in effect created the Athenian empire. The definition of propaganda is â€Å"the planned use of any form of public or mass-produced communication designed to affect the minds of a given group for a specific purpose, whether military, economic or political† (Linearger, p. 39, 1954). This has connotations of dishonesty and while people assume it is a modern phenomenon, its roots go back much further. The question is however, was propaganda rife in 5th century BCE Athens and if so, was it the driving force whether explicitly or not behind many of the public displays? A funeral oration or epitaphios logos is an official speech delivered at a funeral. The epitaphios is regarded as a virtually unique Athenian concept, although early elements of such speeches exist in the Epic poetry of Homer and in Lyric poetry of Pindar; in addition modern parallels have been drawn between Lincoln’s Gettysburg address and Pericles. When Pericles gave the epitaphios for Athenian soldiers who had been killed in the first year of the Peloponnesian War. He took the opportunity to not only praise the deceased, but Athens itself, in an oration which has been both praised as enshrining the archetypal democratic system and condemned as barefaced propaganda. In Thucydides’ book History of the Peloponnesian War, Pericles’ Funeral Oration is a powerful rhetorical piece. In addition it is important evidence for the study of the Athenian sense of identity and the way they represented themselves and others. It eloquently discusses the ancient democratic model and the picture it portrays serves as a prototype for democratic states today (Abbott, 1970). Thucydides specified a man would be chosen to make an ‘appropriate speech’ i. e. it matched formulaic prescriptions of the epitaphios, which according to Edinger, â€Å"consisted of a number of recognised topics: praise of the dead, praise of the ancestors, praise of the city, consolation of the families of the dead.

History Important Terms Essay

Bacon’s Rebellion-1676 – Nathaniel Bacon and other western Virginia settlers were angry at Virginia Governor Berkley for trying to appease the Doeg Indians after the Doegs attacked the western settlements. The frontiersmen formed an army, with Bacon as its leader, which defeated the Indians and then marched on Jamestown and burned the city. The rebellion ended suddenly when Bacon died of an illness. John Winthrop-He became the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay colony, and served in that capacity from 1630 through 1649. A Puritan with strong religious beliefs. He opposed total democracy, believing the colony was best governed by a small group of skillful leaders. He helped organize the New England Confederation in 1643 and served as its first president. He believed in the creation of a City on a Hill and that they would be an example to the world. Separatists- Non-separatists (which included the Puritans) believed that the Church of England could be purified through reforms. Separatists (which included the Pilgrims) believed that the Church of England could not be reformed and that it was corrupt so started their own congregations. Roger Williams-Rhode Island. He left the Massachusetts colony and purchased the land from a neighboring Indian tribe to found the colony of Rhode Island. Rhode Island was the only colony at that time to offer complete religious freedom. He was an antinomian. He was exiled from Massachusetts because of his beliefs. He believed you couldn’t take land from Native Americans because they could be saved, Anglican Church is too corrupt, separation of church and state and religious toleration, you don’t have to listen to the bible or minister if you are already predetermined. Founder of Rhode Island. Anne Hutchinson-She preached the idea that God communicated directly to individuals instead of through the church elders. She was forced to leave Massachusetts in 1637. Her followers (the Antinomians) founded the colony of New Hampshire in 1639. She allied with merchants. Said the bible was wrong. â€Å"Visible saints†- – people who were godly Christians and who went to heaven when they died. Puritans believed that they were the saints of the world. Half-Way Covenant- The Half-way Covenant applied to those members of the Puritan colonies who were the children of church members, but who hadn’t achieved grace themselves. The covenant allowed them to participate in some church affairs. Dominion of New England- 1686 – The British government combined the colonies of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Connecticut into a single province headed by a royal governor (Andros). The Dominion ended in 1692, when the colonists revolted and drove out Governor Andros. An example that Britain was beginning to lose control of New England. Penn’s â€Å"Holy Experiment’- William Penn’s term for the government of Pennsylvania, which was supposed to serve everyone and provide freedom for all. He was a Quaker. He was most likely gay so he wasn’t accepted by puritans but in Pennsylvania he could be free and safe because they believed that they are the same as everyone else. Nathaniel Bacon- Virginian planter who organized a militia of 500, attacked and killed Indians because some tribes caused planters problems. Then he marched the militia into Jamestown and burned it. House of Burgesses-1619 – The Virginia House of Burgesses formed the first legislative body in colonial America. Later other colonies would adopt houses of burgesses. Indentured servants- People who could not afford passage to the colonies could become indentured servants. Another person would pay their passage, and in exchange, the indentured servant would serve that person for a set length of time (usually seven years) and then would be free. Headright- Headrights were parcels of land consisting of about 50 acres which were given to colonists who brought indentured servants into America. They were used by the Virginia Company to attract more colonists â€Å"middle passage† – passage from the African west coast to the West Indies Enlightenment-A philosophical movement which started in Europe in the 1700’s and spread to the colonies. It emphasized reason and the scientific method. Writers of the enlightenment tended to focus on government, ethics, and science, rather than on imagination, emotions, or religion. Many members of the Enlightenment rejected traditional religious beliefs in favor of Deism, which holds that the world is run by natural laws without the direct intervention of God. It is believed that it influenced the American Revolution. Great Awakening- Puritanism had declined by the 1730s, and people were upset about the decline in religious piety. The Great Awakening was a sudden outbreak of religious fervor that swept through the colonies. One of the first events to unify the colonies. It believed in individualism and New Birth. Believed to influence American Revolution. George Whitefield- George Whitefield, an Anglican minister, led numerous revivals and preached a theology â€Å"scaled down to the comprehension of twelve-year-olds.† While not denying the doctrine of predestination, he preached a God responsive to good intentions. He believed in the concept of New Birth. Jonathan Edwards- Jonathan Edwards was the most famous native-born revivalist. In 1727 he â€Å"inherited† his grandfather’s pulpit in Northampton, Massachusetts, and dramatized hell’s fire and brimstone from the pulpit. Eventually in 1749 his parishioners voted to dismiss him. By the 1750s, the Great Awakening, the first truly national event in American history, had run its course. Although it had caused divisions, it also fostered religious toleration. His most famous work is â€Å"Sinners†. He believed one could become morally perfect. Mercantilism-Navigation Acts- the most important legislature that Britain passed on colonies. Says that all goods shipped on vessels built in UK, Raw material to UK only in UK ships, no manufacturing in colonies, 75% UK crews, all goods to other countries stop in UK for unloading. Congregationalism- Puritan system. Says that church is center of town and the meeting house. Congregation elects minister. Pilgrims – Mayflower Compact- 1620 – The first agreement for self-government in America. It was signed by the 41 men on the Mayflower and set up a government for the Plymouth colony. It said that all people must adhere to majority rule, allegiance to king and church is the center of their town. Triangle Trade- The backbone of New England’s economy during the colonial period. Ships from New England sailed first to Africa, exchanging New England rum for slaves. The slaves were shipped from Africa to the Caribbean (this was known as the Middle Passage, when many slaves died on the ships). In the Caribbean, the slaves were traded for sugar and molasses. Then the ships returned to New England, where the molasses were used to make rum. Great Migration- Many Puritans emigrated from England to America in the 1630s and 1640s. During this time, the population of the Massachusetts Bay colony grew to ten times its earlier population. King Philip’s War- 1675 – A series of battles in New Hampshire between the colonists and the Wompanowogs, led by a chief known as King Philip. The war was started when the Massachusetts government tried to assert court jurisdiction over the local Indians. The colonists won with the help of the Mohawks, and this victory opened up additional Indian lands for expansion. Covenant of Grace- Puritan teachings emphasized the biblical covenants: God’s covenants with Adam and with Noah, the covenant of grace between God and man through Christ. John Smith-Helped found and govern Jamestown. His leadership and strict discipline helped the Virginia colony get through the difficult first winter. Virginia Company-Virginia was formed by the Virginia Company as a profit-earning venture. Starvation was the major problem; about 90% of the colonists died the first year, many of the survivors left, and the company had trouble attracting new colonists. They offered private land ownership in the colony to attract settlers, but the Virginia Company eventually went bankrupt and the colony went to the crown. Virginia did not become a successful colony until the colonists started raising and exporting tobacco. William Berkeley- the royal governor, Sir William Berkeley of Virginia. He was forced by Bacon to legitimize his power in order to take control of Jamestown and fight against Indians. â€Å"seasoning time†- period of time when new colonists became accustomed to the weather and hygiene conditions in the colony Toleration Act of 1649- 1649 – Ordered by Lord Baltimore after a Protestant was made governor of Maryland at the demand of the colony’s large Protestant population. The act guaranteed religious freedom to all Christians. Maryland was unique in that it became a refuge for Catholic immigrants, and although Catholics were a minority in Maryland their rights were protected Jacob Leisler- In New York in 1689, Jacob Leisler seized control of the government for two years before being sent to the gallows. But for two decades struggles continued between those who shared Leisler’s dislike of English rule and those who had opposed his takeover. He took control of New York. He was arrested for denying English troops to enter key forts. He arrested many new Yorkers for questioning his authority. John Peter Zenger- Another political problem occurred when Governor William Cosby made a claim for back salary and was opposed by forces led by Lewis Morris. Morrisites established a weekly journal which was eventually closed down and which led to the trial for seditious libel of its editor, John Peter Zenger. Deism- The religion of the Enlightenment (1700s). Followers believed that God existed and had created the world, but that afterwards He left it to run by its own natural laws. Denied that God communicated to man or in any way influenced his life. Albany Plan of Union- During the French and Indian War, Franklin wrote this proposal for a unified colonial government, which would operate under the authority of the British government. Gives the arousal of William Pitt. The first time the colonies unite. Great War for Empire- increased tensions between France and Britain. France puts up forts around their land. Britain is defeated in Ohio because they have really bad Generals and Native Americans are allied with France, But Irukoy Indians ally with Britain. It is the cause of the first meeting between all 13 colonies. William Pitt was appointed general and helped defeat the French. Regulator Movement- was the attempt to regulate taxes in North Carolina where citizens took up arms against corrupt colonial officials. While unsuccessful, some historians consider it a catalyst to the American Revolutionary War. Stono Rebellion in NY- the rebellion against slavery in New York. One of the earliest known organized rebellions in the present United States, it was led by native Africans who were Catholic and the rebellion was suppressed. Treaty of Paris (1763)- 1763 the Treaty of Paris ended hostilities and gave England dominance in North America. France is out of New World. North Carolina Regulators- Western frontiersmen who in 1768 rebelled in protest against the high taxes imposed by the Eastern colonial government of North Carolina, and whose organization was crushed by military force by Governor Tryon in 1771. In South Carolina, groups of vigilantes who organized to fight outlaw bands along the Western frontier in 1767-1769, and who disbanded when regular courts were established in those areas. Sugar Act (1764)- The passage of the Sugar Act (1764), which placed tariffs on sugar, coffee, wines, and other imported products, was denounced by the colonists as taxation without representation. Also in 1764, the government in London restricted the printing, although not the use of, paper money in the colonies. â€Å"Salutary neglect†- colonists resorted to smuggling and bribery to bypass Parliamentary regulations. Mercantilistic laws merely steered American economy toward England, and the colonies enjoyed almost continuous prosperity from 1650 until the Revolution. Proclamation of 1763- Proclamation of 1763. No settlers were to cross the Appalachian divide, only licensed traders could do business in that area, and the purchase of Indian land was outlawed. The purpose of the proclamation was to organize Great Britain’s new North American empire and to stabilize relations with Native North Americans through regulation of trade, settlement, and land purchases on the western frontier. Tea Act 1773- The final crisis in the ongoing conflict over imperial control surfaced in 1773 when Parliament, in attempting to save the corrupt and inefficient British East India Company from bankruptcy, gave the company a monopoly on colonial tea trade. Although this action reduced the price of tea (middlemen were eliminated), Americans regarded it as a sly attempt to trap them into paying the tea tax. In Boston the situation deteriorated as Samuel Adams and other propagandists inflamed the public to a point that on December 16, 1773, the Boston Tea Party occurred. Coercive Acts 1774- All of these names refer to the same acts, passed in 1774 in response to the Boston Tea Party, and which included the Boston Port Act, which shut down Boston Harbor; the Massachusetts Government Act, which disbanded the Boston Assembly (but it soon reinstated itself); the Quartering Act, which required the colony to provide provisions for British soldiers; and the Administration of Justice Act, which removed the power of colonial courts to arrest royal officers. Albany Plan-Stamp Act Congress 1765- taxed many kinds of printed matter, including newspapers, legal documents, and licenses. Was direct taxing by eng. An intercolonial Stamp Act Congress passed resolutions of protest, and relations were further strained as colonists burned the stamps, boycotted British goods, and the Sons of Liberty resorted to some violence. Parliament responded by repealing the Stamp Act (1766). Writs of Assistance- Search warrants issued by the British government. They allowed officials to search houses and ships for smuggled goods, and to enlist colonials to help them search. The writs could be used anywhere, anytime, as often as desired. The officials did not need to prove that there was reasonable cause to believe that the person subject to the search had committed a crime or might have possession of contraband before getting a writ or searching a house. The writs were protested by the colonies. Declaratory Act 1766- On the same day Parliament repealed the Stamp Act, it passed a Declaratory Act establishing its right to enact any colonial legislation it deemed proper. The Declaratory Act highlighted the degree to which British and Americans had drifted apart on the concepts of representation, constitution, and sovereignty. Townshend Acts 1767- Facing the possibility of a deficit budget, Parliament passed the Townshend Acts (1767) which placed new taxes on glass, lead, paints, paper, and tea. Colonists immediately began boycotting British imports and influential Americans began questioning the basis of the British colonial system. The spectrum of debate ranged from the moderate views of John Dickinson to the radical opinions of Samuel Adams. Boston Massacre 1770- On March 5, 1770, idlers tossed snowballs at Redcoats guarding the Boston Custom House, and panicking soldiers fired their muskets into the crowd, killing five. Although radicals like Samuel Adams played up the incident, cooler heads prevailed and a post-massacre truce settled over British America. Circular Letter- a letter sent by Sam Adams to colonies that says taxing is unconstitutional. Virtual – Actual Representation- Virtual representation means that a representative is not elected by his constituents, but he resembles them in his political beliefs and goals. Actual representation mean that a representative is elected by his constituents. The colonies only had virtual representation in the British government. 1st-2nd Continental Congress- The First Continental Congress met to discuss their concerns over Parliament’s dissolutions of the New York (for refusing to pay to quarter troops), Massachusetts (for the Boston Tea Party), and Virginia Assemblies. The First Continental Congress rejected the plan for a unified colonial government, stated grievances against the crown called the Declaration of Rights, resolved to prepare militias, and created the Continental Association to enforce a new non-importation agreement through Committees of Vigilence. In response, in February, 1775, Parliament declared the colonies to be in rebellion. It met in 1776 and drafted and signed the Declaration of Independence, which justified the Revolutionary War and declared that the colonies should be independent of Britain. Sam Adams- A Massachusetts politician who was a radical fighter for colonial independence. Helped organize the Sons of Liberty and the Non-Importation Commission, which protested the Townshend Acts, and is believed to have lead the Boston Tea Party. He served in the Continental Congress throughout the Revolution, and served as Governor of Massachusetts from 1794-1797. John Dickenson- Drafted a declaration of colonial rights and grievances, and also wrote the series of â€Å"Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania† in 1767 to protest the Townshend Acts. Although an outspoken critic of British policies towards the colonies, Dickinson opposed the Revolution, and, as a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1776, refused to sign the Declaration of Independence. Sons of Liberty- A radical political organization for colonial independence which formed in 1765 after the passage of the Stamp Act. They incited riots and burned the customs houses where the stamped British paper was kept. After the repeal of the Stamp Act, many of the local chapters formed the Committees of Correspondence which continued to promote opposition to British policies towards the colonies. The Sons leaders included Samuel Adams and Paul Revere. Unit II Terms Olive Branch Petition- a petition sent by John Dickinson during the Second Continental Congress to George III of Britain to try and reconcile their feuds. It fails to have any effect because by the time the petition arrives in Britain George III knows about Bunker’s Hill and declares Massachusetts in open rebellion so he cuts off all imports to colonies, which will cause major economic problems. Common Sense- a testament written by Tomas Paine to challenge the authority of the British government and the royal monarchy. He writes it to try and create a greater awareness that colonist need independence. It is simple and easy to read. Called for colonists to realize their mistreatment and push for independence from England. Attacked King George III and the monarchy itself. As a result, Continental Congress unleashed privateers against British commerce, open American ports, established state governments. Loyalists- colonists that fight for the British during the Revolution. They included Canadian elites in fear of Americans spreading into their land, some native Americans, and were influenced by the Whigs. They wanted to remain loyal to the British king. Yorktown (1781)- The Battle of Yorktown. It is the decisive battle that ends the Revolutionary War. It forced the British to surrender and negotiate some sort of agreement between America. It leads to the Treaty of Paris 1783 which acknowledged the colonies as independent. Thomas Paine- author of Common Sense. He wanted to create more awareness to colonists about what Britain was doing. He wanted to inspire colonists to do something about their independence. Declaration of Independence- the statement adopted on July 4th that declared that the colonies were no longer part of Britain. Sharply separated Loyalists from Patriots and helped to start the American Revolution by allowing England to hear of the colonists disagreements with British authority. Franco-American Alliance-Saratoga (1778)- an alliance formed between France and the United States. France agrees to help America militarily and economically to defeat and weaken Britain. Articles of Confederation (1781)- The first form of federal government. It had limited national power. It requires a unanimous vote from all colonies to ratify a law, donations instead of taxes, inadequate central government. Gave states independence and more power over national government (able to form treaties, control foreign policy, coin money). Its successes were the Land ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance 1787. Peace of Paris (1783)- Treaty between America and Britain. It recognizes America’s independence. It required all British troops to be evacuated as long as loyalists were paid; all land east of Mississippi went to America, fishing rights of grand banks. Saratoga-Yorktown- two important and decisive battles for America. They are both victories for America.   Republican Motherhood- Came from US War of Independence. Concept that women should educate themselves in the principles of liberty, independence, and democracy so as to inculcate the coming generation with these republican values. This was one sign that women were becoming more respected as intellectually capable. Shays’ Rebellion 1786- Daniel Shay (Revolutionary War veteran) gathered farmers and marched to courthouse because of trade issues and taxes, preventing state Supreme Court from meeting. State sent troops to fight them and suppressed them. Shay and his rebellion were arrested. Land Ordinance of 1785 -Provided for surveying western territories into 6 square mile townships before sale at auction. Compromise between south’s sale to individuals and NE’s sale to groups or companies. 1 section for education and schooling. Imposts -Section 8 of the Constitution. Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defense and general Welfare of the US. But all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the US. Annapolis Convention 17855 -states met â€Å"to discuss common problems of commerce†. All talk, no action. Decided not to make any changes due to lack of reps from other states, so Hamilton suggested they meet in Philadelphia to â€Å"fix† the Articles of Confederation. 3/5 Compromise-North argued slaves should be counted for federal taxation. South disagreed but still wanted slaves counted as people to determine number in House of Representatives. Eventually Every slave counted as 3/5 of a person. 1808 Compromise- Allowed the slave trade to continue, but placed a date-certain on its survival. Congress eventually passed a law outlawing the slave trade that became effective on January 1, 1808. Virginia Plan- a political plan that wanted 2 houses; upper and lower. A strong central government and representation that is proportional to population.   New Jersey Plan- a political plan that wanted equal representation in every state regardless of population.   Northwest Ordinance of 1787- Establishes government for West. First governed by governor and 3 judges, then territory with legislature, and then state. Determines process of dividing territory and writing territory constitution. Banded by Ohio & Mississippi Rivers and Great Lakes. Same rights as original 13 states. Prohibited slavery. Great Compromise- Delegates at Great Convention decided to have bicameral legislature: Lower House- House of Representatives dependent on population (Virginia Plan – favored by larger states) and Upper House- Senate, with equal number of representatives per state (2 per state) (New Jersey Plan – small states). All revenue bills begin in house. Any bill that says it will take money will begin in house of representatives because they are closer to the people. The Federalists Papers 1788- by Madison, Jay and Hamilton. To convince voters in Virginia and New York that constitution was worth a chance. Had little impact but finally New York and Virginia supported it. Checks and balances- Phrase to describe the separation of powers/branches of government. By dividing powers between legislature, executive (President), and judiciary, no one branch can be too powerful. Each one can â€Å"check† the other’s actions. Antifederalists -People against federalists in 1787. Disagreed with the Constitution because they believed people’s rights were being taken away without a Bill of Rights. Appealed to â€Å"common man† as they didn’t want an elected aristocracy. Gave in a bit when promised the Bill of Rights, which they wanted because the British constitution is unwritten so no one can claim any rights. Bill of Rights 1791- By Madison (since he wrote the Constitution too). First 10 amendments of Constitution. Added in 1791. Guarantees civil liberties like freedom of speech, free press, and freedom of religion, etc. written to satisfy the needs of states fearful of losing their rights (anti-federalists. Hamilton’s Economic Plans 1792-94- Funding and Assumption. (Funding- funding the national debt. ‘Spend your way out of debt’ by funding the old debt. Government taxes and uses bonds (citizens lend government money) – people who gave money will pay taxes, will want government to succeed so they get their money back.) (Assumption- the central government takes (assumes) all of the state debts.) Funding and assumption later lead to the formation of political parties. Whiskey Rebellion 1795- 1st major challenge to federal authority. Small rebellion that began in Southwestern Pennsylvania in 1794. Challenge to the national governments unjust use of an excise tax on whiskey. Washington crushed the rebellion with excessive force, proving the strength of the national governments power in its military. Shows that constitution is supreme law and that there are severe limits to what people can do to oppose government.

Essay on THE FALL OF ENRON - 727 Words

The Fall of Enron The History Enron began as a pipeline company in Houston in 1985. It profited by promising to deliver so many cubic feet to a particular utility or business on a particular day at a market price. That change with the deregulation of electrical power markets, a change due in part to lobbying from senior Enron officials. Under the direction of former Chairman Kenneth L. Lay, Enron expanded into an energy broker, trading electricity and other commodities. The Business of Enron Enron became a giant middleman that worked like a hybrid of traditional exchanges. But instead of simply bringing buyers and sellers together, Enron entered the contract with the seller and signed a contract with the buyer, making money on the†¦show more content†¦According to an email sent February 6, 2001, Andersen considered dropping Enron as a client. In August, Enron Vice President Sherron Watkins wrote an anonymous memo to former Chairman Kenneth Lay, detailing reasons she thought Enron â€Å"might implode in a wave of accounting scandals.† On October 16, Enron announced a $638 million loss for the third quarter, and Wall Street reduced the value of stockholders’ equity by $1.2 billion. Enron announced November 8, that it had overstated earnings over the past four years by $586 million and that it was responsible for up to $3 billion in obligations to various partnerships. A $23 billion merger from rival Dynegy was dropped November 28 after lenders downgraded Enron’s debt to junk bond status. Who’s to Blame? Kenneth Lay, (former Enron Chairman and CEO) and Enron poured millions of dollars into both political parties, cultivating access and using the entrà ©e to lobby Congress, the White House and regulatory agencies for action that critical to the energy company’s spectacular growth. 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Film Theory Vs. Realism - 1509 Words

In the initial days of cinema, film theories tended to divide into two opposing views, Formalism and Realism. Formalists believed the formal properties of cinema shaped the way films were made, as well as our responses to them. For formalists, the challenge was to establish film as an independent art form. They found their answer in film’s formal properties, which enable the filmmaker to alter reality and create new worlds within the screen. Formalist filmmaking reached its peak in 1920s with Sergei Eisenstein editing technique, and using intellectual montage with startling effect. In contrast, Realist believed the importance of capturing and recording reality. This is where they considered the essence of filmmaking lies. Formalists on the other hand can argue if that were pure cinema then â€Å"no more actors, no more story, no more sets, which is to say that in the perfect aesthetic illusion of reality there is no more cinema† (Bazin, Andre). 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Innocent Victims of Capital Punishment are Possible Essay

Innocent Victims of Capital Punishment are Possible Try to imagine yourself being convicted of a crime you did not commit, and even worse being told you have die for that crime. This nightmare is actually a reality for some inmates on death row today. The death penalty should be abolished because the potential for even one death of an innocent man violates all principles of justice. Can the justice system ever be 100 percent right? Not likely. Then how can it administer punishment thats 100 percent irreversible (Lock Up 2)? On October 23, 1989, the phone rang at Officer Gary McLaughlins desk. He picked it up immediately answering, ‘State Police, Boston,’ from the other end of†¦show more content†¦An innocent man was convicted of a crime he did not commit. Several reasons exist. First: Bennett had a previous arrest record and he seemed to fit the description of the killer. Second: the police were under pres sure to solve the crime. 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Accounting Policies Adopted By Woolworths-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the Accounting Policies and Procedures adopted by Woolworths Limited. Answer: Introduction The financial reports are developed by business entities by taking into consideration the significant accounting policies and procedures. The accounting policies can be described as the particular rules and procedures implemented by business entities in development of its general purpose financial statements (Horngren et al., 2012). In this context, this report presents an evaluation of the accounting policies and estimates used by an ASX listed company, that is, Woolworths Limited, an Australian retail giant. The report analyses the major accounting policies of the company used in developing financial statements. In addition to this, the comparison of the accounting policies of the company is undertaken with one of its major competitors for identifying the accounting strategy used by Woolworths for achieving competitiveness. Also, the issues of concern in the financial reports of the company are also discussed as red flags in the report. At last, the compliance of the annual disclos ures of the company as per the conceptual accounting framework is evaluated in the report. Section 1: Identify Key Accounting Policies The Woolworths Limited develops and published its consolidated financial reports on the basis of principle of consolidation. As per the principle of consolation, a business entity needs to develop consolidated statements by integrating the financial information of all its associated groups of subsidiaries to represent a single economic entity. The consolidated financial statements are developed by the company in accordance with the Corporations Act 2001, AASB and IFRS standards. The financial facts and figures are presented in Australian dollars as per the ASIC Class Order 98/100. The company has adopted the use of historical cost principle for measurement of its financial instruments except sale derivatives financial assets and some liabilities that are measured at fair value (Woolworths: Annual Report, 2016). The company has applied the relevant AASB standards for disclosing the information related to its cash flows, operating leases and segment disclosures (Hoffman, 2016). The company has implemented the required accounting policies in relation to valuation of inventories, financing costs, trade receivables, derivatives, property, plant and equipment and other financial instruments. In addition to this, the company has also implements significant accounting policies for risk management in order to mitigate the risks arising from its daily operational activities. The major risks identified by the treasury function of the company are market risk, liquidity and credit risk. The Board of Directors has developed written policies in relation to management of the significant risks through the use of derivatives for hedging the risk. The treasury function holds the responsibility of reporting the compliance with the risk policies of the overall Group to the board of directors on an annual basis(Woolworths: Annual Report, 2016). Section 2: Assess Accounting Flexibility The accounting managers are provided with some flexibility in selecting the accounting policies by the Board of Directors as per the corporate goals and objectives. The fact is supported from the findings of positive theory of accounting (PAT). The PAT theory have argued that accounting managers should select the accounting policies that helps them to maximize the value of the firm and thus providing larger returns to the shareholders. Thus, as per the theory the standard-accounting setting board has provided some discretion to the management to exercise some flexibility in the accounting policies. The accounting managers make certain assumptions and estimates in the accounting policies for financial reporting (Wolk, Dodd and Rozycki, 2012). The annual report of Woolworths Limited has also provided a description of the accounting estimates of management during development of its financial statements (Woolworths: Annual Report, 2016). However, the company has maintained that the estim ates, judgments and assumptions are made as per the historical cost basis that is adjusted as per the current market conditions. Source: https://wow2016ar.qreports.com.au/xresources/pdf/wow16ar-full.pdf The accounting estimates and judgments that have a significant risk of causing material adjustments are discussed in detail in the notes to financial statements section of the annual report. The major accounting assumptions are undertaken by the company in estimating the useful life if its fixed assets, impairment value of non-financial assets, put options valuation in non-controlling interests, provisions and discontinued operations. The accounting managers are provided the flexibility in selecting the policies and estimates by the management for reporting of financial performance of the company. However, the Board of Directors ensures that flexibility provided to the management in selecting the accounting policies and estimates do not distort the financial performance in any way. The Board of Directors has adopted the corporate governance framework for providing standard guidelines to the managers and employees. The corporate governance principles provide the ethical policies that the mangers and employees should obey while carrying out their job roles and responsibilities (Woolworths: Annual Report, 2016). The Board in its corporate governance framework has also provided the consequences of non-complying with the ethical policies and procedures for the managers while performing their job roles and responsibilities (Hussey and Ong, 2017). Section 3: Evaluate Accounting Strategy The accounting strategy developed by a business entity depends on the specific accounting policies and procedures selected for developing its financial performance. The accounting strategy depends on the norms of accounting policies selected for competing with industry peers, incentives policy, changes in policies and estimates for achieving the corporate aims and objectives. The Woolworths operates in highly competitive retail market of Australia and thus has many competitors including Wesfarmers Limited, Billabong, Coles and many others (Woolworths: Annual Report, 2016). The major competitor of the company is Wesfarmers Limited that is also recognized a supermarket giant in Australian retail sector. The Wesfarmers is presenting a major challenge in front of Woolworths as it has recently reported an increase in its sales revenue by about $13.1 billion from its retail outlets (Pierce, 2015). The Coles, a Wesfarmers company, has also reported an increase of sales to about 4.5 per cent as compared to Woolworths that have reported only rise in its sales of about 0.7 per cent. Thus, Woolworths current faces a large challenge from its competitors and thus need to implement proper strategies that help it to attain competitive advantage. The Board of directors of the company is planning to implement a lean retail model in the company for reducing its operating expenses to about $500 million in the coming two years. The Wesfarmers have also attained a competitive advantage over Woolworths as it develops its financial reports in a simple format as compared to Woolworths. This helps Wesfarmers to achieve the trust and confidence of investors and creditors more in comparison to Woolworths (Wesfarmers: Annual Report, 2016). Therefore, it can be said that Woolworths need to develop strategic goals and objectives that helps it in attaining a competitive advantage (Wesfarmers full-year profit drops 83.3 per cent on $2 billion writedown, 2017). However, the Woolworths Limited has adopted a proper reward management structure to drive its long-term growth by providing proper motivation to its key management personnel (KMP). The reward management structure comprises of short and long-tem incentive plans provided to its managers fro achieving the companys strategic objectives and goals. The incentive plans of the company are based on share-based payments and are approved from its shareholders in order to promote transparency in the business operations (Sheridan, 2016). There is flexibility provided by AASB to the business entities in developing their incentive plans as per the nature of their business operations and goals. However, the AASB has mandated that such flexibility provided to the companys management should not lead to any manipulation of its financial performance by managers for their personal benefits. The performance targets are linked with the net profit after tax (NPAT) and the EBIT (Earnings before Interest and Tax) (Woolworths: Annual Report, 2016). However, the Board of Directors of the company have maintained that linking of incentives with the profitability does not lead to occurrence of many fraudulent activities such as manipulating finance data for achieving higher benefits by the managers (Bamberg and Spremann, 2012). The incentive plans of the company can be depicted as follows: Source: https://wow2016ar.qreports.com.au/xresources/pdf/wow16ar-full.pdf Source: https://wow2016ar.qreports.com.au/xresources/pdf/wow16ar-full.pdf The company have also adopted the specific change in the accounting policies and adopted some estimates during development of its financial reports. The comparative amounts impacted by the change in the accounting policies are adjusted by the company for each of the prior period. The changes are done in order to improve the relevance and reliability of finance information for example the company has adopted the use of fair value in measuring some of its specific assets and liabilities as compared to its previous use of historic cost principle. The changes in the accounting policies are made by the management in order to comply with the current AASB and IFRS standards. The company has also made some estimates in relation to assessing the carrying and recoverable amount of assets. However, the changes in the policies are estimates are carried out by the company for carrying out some specific accounting transactions as per its long-term strategic goals and objectives (Woolworths: Annual Report, 2016). Section 4: Evaluate the Quality of Disclosure The company has provided significant details of the specific accounting policies for identification and measuring of its various financial elements. The notes to financial statements section of the company have disclosed all the accounting procedures adopted for developing its consolidated financial reports. The statements representing the accounting transactions in the financial report of the company have also included footnotes for providing the relevant accounting policies adopted for their development (Woolworths: Annual Report, 2016). Source: https://wow2016ar.qreports.com.au/xresources/pdf/wow16ar-full.pdf The notes to financial statements section of the annual report of the company are sufficient for providing an insight into the key performance of the company. The notes are also consistent with the current performance of the company and the notes have provided each of the details that have been used in development of the financial reports. The accounting quality of the disclosures of the company can also be analyzed with the application of GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles) standards. The GAAP are the accounting rules and standards that are used by business entities across the world for financial reporting. The principles are developed by the FASB for promoting consistency between the financial reporting of different firms. The development of uniform accounting standards will help the firms to reduce the chances of occurrence of fraudulent accounting activities. The basic accounting principles as per GAAP are cost principle, matching principle and full disclosure. As ana lyzed from Woolworths Limited, the company has adopted the GAAP principles and standards during measurement of its major success factors. The company has adopted the use of historic cost principle for the recognition and measurement of its different financial elements (Woolworths: Annual Report, 2016). This is done as per the GAAP principles as Australian entities incorporate the use of historic cost principle for valuing its different financial instruments. Thus, it can be stated that the adoption of GAAP principles by Woolworths have enhanced its disclosures in relation to its key success factors (Bragg, 2010). The company has also provided relevant information in relation to its operating segments in its notes to financial statements section. The major reportable segments as analyzed from the financial reports of the company are as follows: Australian Food and Petrol New Zealand Supermarkets Endeavour Drinks Group BIGW Hotels The reportable segments of Woolworths have been identified as per its internal reports and these are continuously monitored by the Chief Executive Officer. The review is carried for allocating the required resources to each of the reporting segment. The different business units of the company provide different products and services and also are managed distinct from each other. The financial performance of each of the reporting segments is done on the basis of comparing their respective EBIT (Earnings before interest and tax). This is done in accordance with the AASB standards and section 334 of the Corporations Law that directs all business entities of Australia to report the financial performances of their individual reporting segments. As such, it can be said that Woolworths Limited is complying effectively with AASB and Corporations Law principles in developing its financial reports (Woolworths: Annual Report, 2016). The quality of disclosure provided by the company is also adequ ate as the financial reports are prepared on the basis of application of standard accounting principles and regulations (Walton, 2011). The segment disclosure in the financial reports of the company can be illustrated as: Source: https://wow2016ar.qreports.com.au/xresources/pdf/wow16ar-full.pdf Section 5: Identify Potential Red Flags The potential red flags are referred to as the areas of concern for the management that requires more disclosures in the future financial reports of the company (Gray and Manson, 2007). The company in order to improve its profitability position as compared to the competitors has discontinued its operations in the home improvement market. The company has assessed the value of its property assets on the basis of disposal strategy and investment yields. The values of the assets are determined on the basis of estimation of the management regarding the net sales to be achieved from discontinuing the operations of home improvement. The company has included the impairment loss of the assets in the loss from discontinued operations and the carrying amounts of fixed assets are transferred to Assets held for sale. As such, these refer to unexplained changes in accounting in the annual disclosure of the company that requires more disclosure by the management in the future financial reports (Woo lworths: Annual Report, 2016). The company has also reported a decrease in its inventory value and sales revenue in comparison to its past financial year of 2015. The inventory had significantly decreased from $ 4,872.2m to $4,585.5m and the sales figures have reported a decline of $58,812m to $58,085.7 m in the financial year 2016. The company has also reported a loss of about $2,347.9m in the financial year 2016. The company financial performance is declining and thus it needs to significantly provide the reasons for same in its financial reports and the strategies it is planning to implement for improving the profitability. This is essential for the company to maintain the trust and confidence of its present and potential investors. The main reason for the loss reported in the financial year of the company is due its discontinued operations from the home improvement market (Henderson et al., 2015). The comprehensive loss from the discontinued operations as reported in the income statement of the company is $3,1 91.9m (Woolworths: Annual Report, 2016). The company has also reported cash inflows from the sale of its items of property, plant and equipment to about $722m in the accounting period of 2016. Source: https://wow2016ar.qreports.com.au/xresources/pdf/wow16ar-full.pdf However, the notes to financial statement of the company have not stated any reason for large asset write-offs by the company. The reduction in the value of fixed assets of the company reported as asset write-offs is recorded in the statement of cash flows of the company. The company in order to enhance the understandability of its financial information should provide more information about its asset write-offs it in its financial reports (Mintz, 2013). Section 6: Compliant With Conceptual Framework The conceptual accounting framework has been developed by the IASB for improving the quality of financial reporting. The major principles as identified by IASB of conceptual accounting framework are relevance, reliability, faithful presentation and understandability. Thus, financial information should be according to these qualitative characteristics for meeting the needs and expectations of the end-users of financial reports (Pietra, McLeay and Ronen, 2013). The Woolworths Limited has provided financial information in its annual disclosures as per the qualitative characteristics of conceptual accounting framework. The financial information presented is relevant, reliable and also complete in all aspects. The company however needs to enhance the understandability of its financial reports by developing its general purpose financial statements in an easy format. The quality of the financial reports is also significantly influenced by the political factors that the company faces while o perating its business in different countries (Kenny, 2009). The Woolworths Limited is operating on a global level and therefore needs to develop its financial reports in a way for meeting he expectations of its diverse users across the world. As such, the company is complying with the IFRS standards as stated in its annual reports in order to meet its corporate goals of diversification and expansion. The company is also making some voluntarily disclosures for improving its competiveness on a global platform in its annual reports. For example, the company has presented detailed information regarding its trading performance in its annual report that is not required under AASB standards. This is done by the company voluntarily for improving its global competiveness and thus driving its sustainable growth in the foreign markets. The company making such voluntarily disclosures will be bale to achieve its long-term goals of attaining global competitiveness and thus achieving a recognized brand name in the global market of Australia (Woolworths: Ann ual Report, 2016). Thus, the selection of such accounting policies and disclosures will help the company for improving the reliability and transparency in the business operations and thus achieving the trust of foreign investors (Jensen, 2001). Conclusion It can be inferred from the overall discussion held in the report that accounting policies and procedures plays a significant role in depicting the actual financial performance of a business entity. The flexibility provided to the managers in selection of particular accounting policies can also lead to manipulation of accounting activities. Thus, as such it is important for the Board of directors to review the discretion power of the management for ascertaining that the authority provided to them is not used for achieving any personal gains. The analysis of annual disclosure of Woolworths Limited has revealed that the company has effectively followed the relevant AASB and Corporations Law standards for developing its financial reports. However, there are some areas of concern identified in its financial reports that needs more disclosures by the management for improving the understandability of its general purpose financial statements References Bamberg, G. and Spremann, K. 2012. Agency Theory, Information, and Incentives. Springer Science Business Media. Bragg, S. 2010. Wiley GAAP: Interpretation and Application of Generally Accepted Accounting Principles 2011. John Wiley Sons. Gray, I. and Manson, S. 2007. The Audit Process: Principles, Practice and Cases. Cengage Learning EMEA. Henderson, S. et al. 2015. Issues in Financial Accounting. Pearson Higher Education AU. Hoffman, C.W. 2016. Revising the Conceptual Framework of the International Standards: IASB Proposals Met with Support and Skepticism. World Journal of Business and Management 2 (1), pp. 1-32. Horngren, C. et al. 2012. Financial Accounting. Pearson Higher Education AU. Hussey, R. and Ong, A. 2017. Corporate Financial Reporting. Springer. Jensen, M.C. 2001. Foundations of Organizational Strategy. Harvard University Press. Kenny, G. 2009. Diversification Strategy: How to Grow a Business by Diversifying Successfully. Kogan Page Publishers. Mintz, S. 2013. Accounting for the Public Interest: Perspectives on Accountability, Professionalism and Role in Society. Springer Science Business Media. Pierce, F. 2015. Wesfarmers vs. Woolworths: which has the upper hand? [Online]. Available at: https://www.businessreviewaustralia.com/finance/1639/Wesfarmers-vs-Woolworths:-which-has-the-upper-hand [Accessed on: 5 October 2017]. Pietra, R., McLeay, S and Ronen, J. 2013. Accounting and Regulation: New Insights on Governance, Markets and Institutions. Springer Science Business Media. Sheridan, T. 2016. Managerial Fraud: Executive Impression Management, Beyond Red Flags. Routledge. Walton, P. 2011. A Global History of Accounting, Financial Reporting and Public Policy: Asia and Oceania. Emerald Group Publishing. Wesfarmers full-year profit drops 83.3 per cent on $2 billion writedown. 2017. [Online]. Available at: https://www.news.com.au/finance/business/retail/wesfarmers-fullyear-profit-drops-833-per-cent-on-2-billion-writedown/news-story/ca70aa1e16fbe1824a5376a975a0d387 [Accessed on: 5 October 2017]. Wesfarmers: Annual Report. 2016. [Online]. Available at: https://www.wesfarmers.com.au/docs/default-source/reports/2016-annual-report.pdf?sfvrsn=4 [Accessed on: 5 October, 2017]. Wolk, H.I., Dodd, J.L. and Rozycki, J.J. 2012. Accounting Theory: Conceptual Issues in a Political and Economic Environment. SAGE. Woolworths: Annual Report. 2016. [Online]. Available at: https://www.woolworthsholdings.co.za/downloads/2016/WHL-Integrated-Report-2016.pdf [Accessed on: 5 October, 2017].

Richard Adams Writings Essays - British Films,

Richard Adams Writings Richard Adams was born in Newbury, England in May of 1920. He was the youngest of three children, a sister, Katherine, and a brother, John. (Richard had had another brother but he died at the age of three from influenza.) Richard was his father's favorite. George Adams (his dad), spent most of his time with young Richard teaching him about all the nature in the area. Richard grew up a few miles from the town of Newbury on a three acre piece of land with a house named "Oakdene." Richard's father was a doctor at the local hospital in Newbury and his mother, Lilian Rose Adams, was a nurse. Richard spent most of his childhood at home and out wandering around Newbury, enjoying its beauty. At about the age of 10, he was sent to the Horace Hill boarding school. After a few years, he was sent to another prep school, Bradfield, and at the age of 18, received a history scholarship to Oxford University. At the age of 21 he was enlisted in the British Army. Adams has produced a variety of different writings. Along with his numerous novels: Watership Down, Shardik, The Plague Dogs, The Girl in a Swing, Maia, and Traveller, Adams has also written books of short stories: The Iron Wolf and Other Stories, and The Unbroken Web. As well, he has done picture books in verse: The Tyger Voyage, and The Ship's Cat, and books on nature: Nature Through the Seasons, Nature Day and Night, and A Nature Diary. Adams' first novel, Watership Down, is about a group of rabbits who leave their home because of disaster, and go out in search of a new home. On the way, they encounter two other groups of rabbits. One group lives life with a constant knowledge that they are just food for the neighboring farmer, neglecting their own culture. The other group lives so as to never be found by man and to protect itself from predators. When, at last, a new home is found, the rabbits have to undertake a journey in order to find some females so that their colony will grow and prosper. Throughout the novel, Adams puts in various ideas and themes that are meant to make the reader think twice about their relationships with nature and themselves. This novel sets up the themes of freedom and survival, which are also found in two of his other novels, and the theme of the stupidity and cruelty of man to the earth and her creatures. The Plague Dogs, Adams' third novel, is about two dogs who escape from an animal research station and try to fend for themselves in the hills of England. Rowf, a large, black, strong mongrel who has a mean temper and who has a deathly fear of water due to the experiments performed on him. Snitter, a fox terrier who has fits and has the power to see the future because of the brain surgery performed on him in the research station. Together, they meet up with a tod (fox). The tod helps them survive while reporters follow the dogs and spread dangerous rumors of the plague, getting politics involved. The themes in this novel are similar to the ones in Watership Down: survival, freedom, and human cruelty, but added to this list is the theme of rights. In this case, the right of animals, but, in some of his other works the theme extends to those people who are less fortunate and are in awful situations. The Girl in a Swing, his fourth novel, talks about a young man, Alan Desland, who has devoted his life to the business of fine ceramics and who is completely swept off his feet by a young German woman, K?the. They get married, in Florida, after a very short courtship and return to England, where Alan returns to his business and K?the holds spellbound his friends, family, and even him, with her beauty and charm. Inside K?the, though, is a secret which Alan finds out about too late. The main theme in this novel is completely different from his other novels. Adams concentrates mostly on guilt - A guilt that K?the held inside her and eventually caused her destruction. He also explains how guilt affects those around the guilty. Adams' fifth novel, Maia, is a story about a young, beautiful girl who is thrown into slavery by her jealous mother. She makes friends with an exotic girl, Occula, who is sent on a mission from